Physiology of Reflexes

A reflex or reflex action is an involuntary activity that is usually carried out instantly in a response to a stimulus without the involvement of conscious effort. There are different types of reflexes some are swift while others being slow. A true reflex is a behavior that is mediated by a chain of only two [...]

How Nerves Transmit Impulses

Anatomy of the Brain Our brain has tiny parts known as neurons that contain two portions: dendrites and axons. The dendrites of a neuron are branched, tubelike-extensions within the cell body in the form of a structure identical to the limbs of a tree. Most part of the neuron cell bodies contain almost six primary [...]

Anatomy and Physiology: Endocrine System

Overview The activity of every cell and organs of our bodies are influenced by the release of certain chemicals that are used to control and carry out certain bodily functions. Such is the power of the second great controlling system of the body, the endocrine system. Mood regulation, growth and development, functions of the tissue, [...]

Neurotransmitters and How They Work

Definition Nerve cells arranged in networks communicate information with one another through neurotransmission which is the conduction of electrical messages from neuron to neuron. The electrochemical messages cross the synapses between neural cells by way of special chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are chemicals found and produced in the brain to allow the transmission of [...]

Layers of Meninges

Overview Brain and spinal cord protection is made possible by enclosing these structures within bones such as the skull and the verterbrae, presence of the CSF that creates a watery cushion and the presence of the membranes or meninges. This section will focus the discussion about the function and anatomy of the membranes or meninges. [...]

Cranial Nerves

Cranial Nerves The cranial nerve is a part of the peripheral nervous system and primarily serves the head and the neck. There are about 12 pairs of cranial nerves where only one pair extends to the thoracic and the abdominal cavities. Characteristics of the cranial nerves Cranial nerves are numbered and are in order. The [...]

Anatomy and Physiology of Respiratory System

Overview Cells in the body require oxygen to survive. Vital functions of the body are carried out as the body is continuously supplied with oxygen. Without the respiratory system exchange of gases in the alveoli will not be made possible and systemic distribution of oxygen will not be made possible. The transportation of oxygen in [...]

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Definition Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear and colorless fluid. It is a watery broth similar in its makeup to blood plasma, from which it forms. The cerebrospinal fluid is a fluid that circulates throughout the central nervous system and is located between the brain and skull. Purpose of CSF The CSF has 2 important [...]

Anatomy and Physiology: Special Senses – The EYES

Overview A person’s sense of sight is very important to humans. Vision is arguably the most used of the 5 senses and is one of the primary means that we use to gather information from our surroundings. The human eye is the organ which gives us the sense of sight, allowing us to observe and [...]

Anatomy and Physiology: Special Senses – The EAR

Overview Hearing is one of the major senses and like vision is important for distant warning and communication. It can be used to alert, to communicate pleasure and fear. It is a conscious appreciation of vibration perceived as sound. In order to do this, the appropriate signal must reach the higher parts of the brain. [...]